Multimedia

= = = Multimedia  =

**Multimedia Summary **
The use of text and relevant graphics can enhance learning in e-lessons specifically when the two are relevant to each other. According to Clark & Mayer (2011) the multimedia principle includes both words and graphics that work together to create meaning for the learner. E-learning lessons that use the multimedia principle properly can greatly enhance the learning experience for students. When selecting words and pictures for a multimedia presentation the designer should consider how words and pictures work together to create meaning for the learner (Clark & Mayer, 2011). The designer needs to conduct job analysis to plan how the visuals and words will work together to enhance learning. Multimedia presentations have the ability to engage learners in active learning by mentally representing the material in words and in pictures so connections can be made between the pictorial and verbal representations (Clark & Mayer, 2011) Graphics can enhance learning, but only when the designer selects the appropriate graphics that coordinate with the information presented. The designer must consider the different functions graphics have: > pumps. (Clark & Mayer, 2011)
 * Decorative graphics serve to decorate the page without enhancing the message of the lesson, such as photo or a video of person riding a bicycle in a lesson on how bicycle tire pumps work. (Clark & Mayer, 2011)
 * Representational graphics portray a single element, such as photo of the bicycle tire pump along with a caption, “Bicycle Tire Pump.” (Clark & Mayer, 2011)
 * Relational graphics portray a quantitative relationship among two or more variables, such as a line graph showing the relation between years of age on the x-axis and probability of being in a bicycle accident on the y-axis. (Clark & Mayer, 2011)
 * Organizational graphics depict the relations among elements, such as a diagram of a bicycle tire pump with each part labeled or a matrix giving a definition and example of each of three different kinds of
 * Transformational graphics depict changes in an object over time, such as a video showing how to fix a flat tire, or a series of annotated frames showing stages of how a bicycle tire pump works. (Clark & Mayer, 2011)
 * Interpretive graphics illustrate invisible relationships such as an animation of the bicycle pump that includes small dots to show the flow of air into and out of the pump. (Clark & Mayer, 2011)

According to Clark & Mayer (2011) it is important for the instructor to guide the learner’s cognitive processing during learning, thereby enabling and encouraging learners to actively process the information. Making mental connections is important part of active processing and providing pictorial and verbal representations enhances this aspect for learners. Clark & Mayer (2011) states “evidence shows that people learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone.” Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2011). E-Learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumer and designer of multimedia learning.(3rd ed.) San Francisco: Pfeiffer.

**Multimedia Examples **
From Clark & Mayer (2011) we learned that examples are powerful methods that can be used to build cognitive skills. Learners favor examples over verbal descriptions as they simplify the learning process. “A worked example is a step-by-step demonstration of how to perform a task or solve a problem” (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p. 224). Worked examples can be used to help learners in learning procedural skills or strategic skills; an example of a procedural skill can be learning how to use a spreadsheet or filling out a form, a strategic skill can be used to develop negotiation skills or solve a math problem. Figure 11.1 is used to illustrate a probability calculation in a statistics class.

Problem: From a ballot box containing three red balls and two white balls, two balls are randomly drawn. The chosen balls are not put back into the ballot box. What is the probability that the red ball is drawn first and a white ball is second? Solution <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Step || <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Total number of balls: 5 <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Number of red balls: 3 <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Probability of red ball first 3/5 = .6 || <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Solution <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Step || <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Total number of balls after first draw: (2 red and 2 white balls)
 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">First
 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Second

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Probability of a white ball second: 2/4 = .5 || <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Solution <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> Step || <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Probability that a second ball is drawn first and a white ball is second: 3/5 x ½ = 3/10 = .3
 * <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Third

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Answer: <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">The probability that a red ball is drawn first and a white ball is second is 3/10 or .3. || <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Figure 11.1. A Worked Example of a Probability Problem. (From Atkinson, Renkl, and Merrill, 2003.)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Sweller (2004) suggests that “the main path to building new knowledge in long-term memory is through imitating others.” Worked examples help learners reorganize new knowledge, then through practice learner’s transition from the worked examples to completing their own work.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Clark & Mayer organized the benefits of worked examples into the following principles.


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> Principle 1: Fade from worked examples to problems
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Principle 2: Promote self-explanations
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Principle 3: Include instructional explanations of worked examples in some situations
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Principle 4: Apply the multimedia principles to examples
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Principle 5: Support learning transfer

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">In **Principle 1** (Fade from worked examples to problems) the learner is progressively walked through a series of steps until the learners are solving the entire problem on their own. An example of this is when learning Algebra and the variables are introduced one at a time (or elementary children learning the multiplication table).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Principle 2** (Promote self-explanations) identifies the potential problem that many learners either ignore worked examples or do not pay much attention to them. Learners should be encouraged by techniques that promote deeper learning. Clark & Mayer identify two techniques that are proven to work, add self-explanation questions and promote collaborative explanations of worked examples.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Principle 3** (Include instructional explanations of worked examples in some situations) is adding worked examples in situations that will benefit the learner. The use of a “help” button may be used to offer details to help guide the learner through a problematic process. Boundary conditions are what instructional psychologists describe as three situations in which instructional explanations can be helpful: 1) when conceptual understanding is the goal not problem solving, 2) an instructional explanation is not available, and 3) when learners are intimidated.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Principle 4** (Apply the multimedia principles to examples) is about the use of multimedia to quickly convey the learning objectives to the learner. Using relevant graphics, audio and text without extraneous noise, integrated text with graphics, and segmentation are beneficial to the learner. By ‘chunking’ information, or separating it to keep from overloading the cognitive process, will enable the learner to gain a greater understanding.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">**Principle 5** (Support learning transfer), the goal here is to teach learners how to apply steps learned in training to a real-world work environment, known as far transfer skills. It is a good idea to use worked examples that illustrate similar guidelines but to vary the context (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p. 241).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2011). E-Learning and the science of instruction (3rd ed.). Retrieved from <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> The University of Phoenix e-book database.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Sweller, J. (2004). Instructional design and conseuences of an analogy between evolution by natural selection <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;"> and human cognitive architectures. Instructional Science, 32,9-31.